Mineraller - Yararlanılan Kaynaklar

 

Metin Referansları

  1. Clarke, F.W.H.S.W., 1927, The Composition of the Earth’s Crust: Professional Paper, United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper.
  2. Gordon, L.M., and Joester, D., 2011, Nanoscale chemical tomography of buried organic-inorganic interfaces in the chi-ton tooth: Nature, v. 469, no. 7329, p. 194–197.
  3. Hans Wedepohl, K., 1995, The composition of the continental crust: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 59, no. 7, p. 1217–1232.
  4. Lambeck, K., 1986, Planetary evolution: banded iron formations: v. 320, no. 6063, p. 574–574.
  5. Scerri, E.R., 2007, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance: Oxford University Press, USA.
  6. Thomson, J.J., 1897, XL. Cathode Rays: Philosophical Magazine Series 5, v. 44, no. 269, p. 293–316.
  7. Trenn, T.J., Geiger, H., Marsden, E., and Rutherford, E., 1974, The Geiger-Marsden Scattering Results and Rutherford’s Atom, July 1912 to July 1913: The Shifting Significance of Scientific Evidence: Isis, v. 65, no. 1, p. 74–82.

Şekil Referansları

  • Şekil 3.1: The periodic table of the elements. R.A. Dragoset, A. Musgrove, C.W. Clark, and W.C. Martin — NIST, Physical Measurement Laboratory. 2010. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Periodic_Table_-_Atomic_Properties_of_the_Elements.png
  • Şekil 3.2: Formation of carbon-14 from nitrogen-14. Sgbeer; adapted by NikNaks. 2011. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon_14_formation_and_decay.svg
  • Şekil 3.3: Element abundance pie chart for Earth’s crust. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0.
  • Şekil 3.4: A model of a water molecule, showing the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen. Dan Craggs. 2009. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:H2O_2D_labelled.svg
  • Şekil 3.5: The carbon dioxide molecule. Jynto. 2011. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon_dioxide_3D_ball.png
  • Şekil 3.6: Cubic arrangement of Na and Cl in halite. Benjah-bmm27. 2006. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png
  • Şekil 3.7: Methane molecule. DynaBlast. 2006. CC BY-SA 2.5. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Covalent.svg
  • Şekil 3.8: Calcium carbonate deposits from hard water. Bbypnda. 2014. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hard_Water_Calcification.jpg
  • Şekil 3.9: The Bonneville Salt Flats of Utah. Bureau of Land Management. 2015. CC BY 2.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bonneville_Salt_Flats_(17423041595).jpg
  • Şekil 3.10: Lava, magma at the Earth’s surface. Hawaii Volcano Observatory (DAS). 2003. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pahoehoe_toe.jpg
  • Şekil 3.11: Ammonite shell made of calcium carbonate. Dlloyd. 2006. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ammonite_Asteroceras.jpg
  • Şekil 3.12: Rotating animation of a tetrahedra. Kjell André. 2005. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tetrahedron.gif
  • Şekil 3.13: Silicate tetrahedron. Helgi. 2013. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Silicate_tetrahedron_%2B.svg
  • Şekil 3.14: Olivine crystals in basalt. Vsmith. 2005. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peridot_in_basalt.jpg
  • Şekil 3.15: Tetrahedral structure of olivine. Matanya (usurped). 2005. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atomic_structure_of_olivine_1.png
  • Şekil 3.16: Crystals of diopside, a member of the pyroxene family. Robert M. Lavinsky. 2010. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diopside-172005.jpg
  • Şeki 3.17: Single chain tetrahedral structure in pyroxene. Bubenik. 2012. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyroxferroite-chain.png
  • Şekil 3.18: Elongated crystals of hornblende in orthoclase. Dave Dyet. 2007. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orthoclase_Hornblende.jpg
  • Şekil 3.19: Hornblende crystals. Saperaud~commonswiki. 2005. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amphibole.jpg
  • Şekil 3.20: Double chain structure. Bubenik. 2012. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jimthompsonite-chain.png
  • Şekil 3.21: Sheet crystals of biotite mica. Fred Kruijen. 2005. CC BY-SA 3.0 NL. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biotite_aggregate_-_Ochtendung,_Eifel,_Germany.jpg
  • Şekil 3.22: Crystal of muscovite mica. Saperaud~commonswiki. 2005. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MicaSheetUSGOV.jpg
  • Şekil 3.23: Sheet structure of mica. Benjah-bmm27. 2007. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silicatesheet-3D-polyhedra.png
  • Şekil 3.24: Crystal structure of a mica. Rosarinagazo. 2006. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illstruc.jpg
  • Şekil 3.25: Mica “silica sandwich” structure. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0. Includes Sandwich by Alex Muravev from Noun Project (Noun Project license).
  • Şekil 3.26: Structure of kaolinite. USGS. Public domain. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-041/htmldocs/clays/kaogr.htm
  • Şekil 3.27: Freely growing quartz crystals showing crystal faces. JJ Harrison. 2009. CC BY-SA 2.5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quartz,_Tibet.jpg
  • Şekil 3.28: Mineral abundance pie chart in Earth’s crust. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0.
  • Şekil 3.29: Pink orthoclase crystals. Didier Descouens. 2009. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OrthoclaseBresil.jpg
  • Şekil 3.30: Crystal structure of feldspar. Taisiya Skorina and Antoine Allanore (DOI:10.1039/C4GC02084G). 2015. CC BY 3.0. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/fig1_273641498
  • Şekil 3.31: Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate. Matt Affolter(QFL247). 2009. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hanksite.JPG
  • Şekil 3.32: Calcite crystal in shape of rhomb. Note the double-refracted word “calcite” in the center of the figure due to birefringence. Alkivar. 2005. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calcite-HUGE.jpg
  • Şekil 3.33: Limestone with small fossils. Jim Stuby. 2010. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg
  • Şekil 3.34: Bifringence in calcite crystals. Mikael Häggström. 2010. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Positively_birefringent_material.svg
  • Şekil 3.35: Crystal structure of calcite. Materialscientist. 2009. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calcite.png
  • Şekil 3.36: Limonite, a hydrated oxide of iron. USGS. 2005. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LimoniteUSGOV.jpg
  • Şekil 3.37: Oolitic hematite. Dave Dyet. 2007. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hematite_-_oolitic_with_shale_Iron_Oxide_Clinton,_Oneida_County,_New_York.jpg
  • Şekil 3.38: Halite crystal showing cubic habit. Saperaud~commonswiki. 2005. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ImgSalt.jpg
  • Şekil 3.39: Salt crystals at the Bonneville Salt Flats. Michael. 2008. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bonneville_salt_flats_pilot_peak.jpg
  • Şekil 3.40: Fluorite. B shows fluorescence of fluorite under UV light. Didier Descouens. 2009. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FluoriteUV.jpg
  • Şekil 3.41: Cubic crystals of pyrite. CarlesMillan. 2009. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2780Mpyrite1.jpg
  • Şekil 3.42: Gypsum crystal. USGS. 2004. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SeleniteGypsumUSGOV.jpg
  • Şekil 3.43: Apatite crystal. Didier Descouens. 2010. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apatite_Canada.jpg
  • Şekil 3.44: Native sulfur deposited around a volcanic fumarole. Brisk g. 2006. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fumarola_Vulcano.jpg
  • Şekil 3.45: Native copper. Jonathan Zander (Digon3); adapted by Materialscientist. 2009. CC BY-SA 2.5. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NatCopper.jpg
  • Şekil 3.46: The rover Curiosity drilled a hole in this rock from Mars, and confirmed the mineral hematite, as mapped from satellites. NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS. Public domain. https://www.nasa.gov/jpl/msl/pia19036/
  • Şekil 3.47: 15 mm metallic hexagonal molybdenite crystal from Quebec. John Chapman. 2008. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Molly_Hill_molybdenite.JPG
  • Şekil 3.48: Submetallic luster shown on an antique pewter plate. Unknown author. ca. 1770 and 1810. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pewter_Plate.jpg
  • Tablo 3.3: Nonmetallic luster descriptions and examples. Quartz Brésil by Didier Descouens, 2010 (CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quartz_Br%C3%A9sil.jpg). KaolinUSGOV by Saperaud~commonswiki, 2005 (Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KaolinUSGOV.jpg). Selenite Gips Marienglas by Ra’ike, 2006 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Selenite_Gips_Marienglas.jpg). Mineral Mica GDFL006 by Luis Miguel Bugallo Sánchez, 2005 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mineral_Mica_GDFL006.JPG). Sphalerite4 by Andreas Früh, 2005 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sphalerite4.jpg).
  • Şekil 3.49: Azurite is ALWAYS a dark blue color, and has been used for centuries for blue pigment. Graeme Churchard. CC BY 2.0. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azurite_in_siltstone,_Malbunka_mine_NT.jpg
  • Şekil 3.50: Different minerals may have different streaks. Ra’ike. 2010. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Streak_plate_with_Pyrite_and_Rhodochrosite.jpg
  • Şekil 3.51: Mohs hardness scale. NPS. Public domain (full license here). https://www.nps.gov/articles/mohs-hardness-scale.htm
  • Tablo 3.4: Typical crystal habits of various minerals. Elbaite-Lepidolite-Quartz-gem7-x1a by Robert M. Lavinsky, 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elbaite-Lepidolite-Quartz-gem7-x1a.jpg). Pyrophyllite-290575 by Robert M. Lavinsky, 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pyrophyllite-290575.jpg). Kyanite crystals by Aelwyn, 2006 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kyanite_crystals.jpg). Malachite Kolwezi Katanga Congo by Didier Descouens, 2012 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Malachite_Kolwezi_Katanga_Congo.jpg). Ametyst-geode by Juppi66, 2009 (Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ametyst-geode.jpg). Calcite-Galena-elm56c by Robert M. Lavinsky, before March 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calcite-Galena-elm56c.jpg). Pyrite elbe by Didier Descouens, 2011 (CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pyrite_elbe.jpg). Dendrites01 by Wilson44691, 2008 (Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dendrites01.jpg). Peridot2 by S kitahashi, 2006 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peridot2.jpg). Tremolite Campolungo by Didier Descouens, 2009 (CC BY-SA 4.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tremolite_Campolungo.jpg). Muscovite-Albite- 22887 by Robert M. Lavinsky, 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muscovite-Albite-122887.jpg). Calcite-Wulfenite-tcw15a by Robert M. Lavinsky, 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calcite-Wulfenite-tcw15a.jpg). Hanksite by Matt Affolter(QFL247), 2009 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hanksite.JPG). LimoniteUSGOV by USGS, unknown date (Public domain, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LimoniteUSGOV.jpg). Fluorite crystals 270×444 by Ryan Salsbury, 2004 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fluorite_crystals_270x444.jpg). Calcite-HUGE by Alkivar, 2005 (Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calcite-HUGE.jpg). Diopside-172005 by Robert M. Lavinsky, before March 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diopside-172005.jpg). Tetrahedrite-Chalcopyrite-Sphalerite-251531 by Robert M. Lavinsky, before March 2010 (CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tetrahedrite-Chalcopyrite-Sphalerite-251531.jpg).
  • Şekil 3.52: Gypsum with striations. Didier Descouens. 2009. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gypse_Caresse.jpg
  • Şekil 3.53: Twinned staurolite. Virginia State Parks. 2013. CC BY 2.0. https://flic.kr/p/WxNWqi
  • Şekil 3.54: Striations on plagioclase. Mike Beauregard. 2011. CC BY 2.0. https://flic.kr/p/9xh4MS
  • Şekil 3.55: Citrine, a variety of quartz showing conchoidal fracture. James St. John. 2021. CC BY 2.0. https://flic.kr/p/2ky61rb
  • Şekil 3.56: Graphite showing layers of carbon atoms separated by a gap with weak bonds holding the layers together. Itub; adapted by Materialscientist. 2009. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diamond_and_graphite2.jpg
  • Şekil 3.57: Cubic cleavage of galena; note how the cleavage surfaces show up as different but parallel layers in the crystal. Modris Baum. 2012. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Argentiferous_Galena-458851.jpg
  • Şekil 3.58: Freely growing quartz crystals showing crystal faces. JJ Harrison. 2009. CC BY-SA 2.5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quartz,_Tibet.jpg
  • Şekil 3.59: Steps of cleavage along the same cleavage direction. USGS; adapted by David Remahl. 2004. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WollastoniteUSGOV.jpg
  • Şekil 3.60: Photomicrograph showing 120/60 degree cleavage within a grain of amphibole. Eurico Zimbres. 1990. CC BY-SA 2.5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amphibol.jpg
  • Şekil 3.61: A demonstration of ulexite’s image projection. Dave Merrill. 2005. CC BY-SA 2.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ulexite_on_flickr_%2821734610%29.jpg
  • Şekil 3.62: Native gold has one of the highest specific gravities. Gump Stump. 2008. CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Latrobe_gold_nugget_Natural_History_Museum.jpg
  • Şekil 3.63: Paperclips attach to lodestone (magnetite). Ryan Somma. 1980. CC BY-SA 2.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magnetite_Lodestone.jpg
  • Şekil 3.64: Iridescence on plagioclase, also showing striations on the cleavage surface. Mike Beauregard. 2011. CC BY 2.0. https://flic.kr/p/9xh4MS
  • Şekil 3.65: Exsolution lamellae within potassium feldspar. Jstuby. 2009. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perthitic_feldspar_Dan_Patch_SD.jpg
  • Şekil 3.66: Fluorite. B shows fluorescence of fluorite under UV light. Didier Descouens. 2009. CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FluoriteUV.jpg



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